All Twenty Introductions to
A Journey into Modern Physics - LIGHT
PART 1 - CHAPTER 1
WHAT IS AN ATOM?
This chapter is all about atoms and what they are made of. You'll also meet the fundamental forces of nature, and we'll take a first look at; neutron decay, neutrinos, anti-matter and radioactive isotopes: lots of fascinating stuff.
The chapter ends with discussions about frontiers of modern physics - dark matter and dark energy - as well as the very strange neutrino clan.
PART 1 - CHAPTER 2
HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS?
In this chapter, we'll look at how the atom was first probed and how from 1900 to the 1960s a veritable zoo of sub-atomic particles was uncovered.
Then, in the 1960s the quark was proposed and indirectly discovered, providing a simple explanation of the particle zoo.
Staggering fact: All the visible, tangible matter in the universe is just made up of quarks and electrons.
PART 1 - CHAPTER 3
CAN WE SHED LIGHT ON THE ELECTRON?
In this chapter we explore two of the reasons why classical physics failed to explain the world of the atom. First, there was what has come to be known as the wave/particle dual nature of both light and particles. Secondly, there was a mystery about how stuff glowed when heated.
Stay tuned to see what it's all about and be prepared to be amazed as quantum weirdness rules supreme!
PART 1 - CHAPTER 4
HOW DO ELECTRONS POPULATE ATOMS?
Ever wondered how atoms - those tiny building blocks of everything - appear to be mostly just empty space? It’s all because of electrons and their strange ability to exist as both particles and waves at the same time. Sounds wild, right? In this chapter, we’ll break down how electrons fill up that 'empty' space inside atoms.
First up: the Bohr Model, the atomic model that got scientists thinking. Then, we’ll level up with Schrödinger’s equation - a key part of quantum mechanics (QM) - which helps us calculate where electrons might be hanging out in an atom.
For now, QM has got this topic covered, so let’s dive in.
PART 1 - CHAPTER 5
HOW DO FORCE INTERACTIONS WORK?
In this chapter, we’ll explore how three of the four fundamental forces of nature work. To understand two of them, we’ll introduce a strange idea called ‘virtual exchange particles.’
Things are about to get very weird again - but in a cool way! We’ll also check out Feynman diagrams, which help us visualize how force-carrying particles interact.
One of the most fascinating forces is the weak nuclear interaction, (the one that causes a neutron to decay into a proton, electron and anti-neutrino) where the exchange particles are actually more massive than a proton or a neutron!
By the end of this chapter, we’ll see how these force-carrying particles fit into the Standard Model of Particle Physics.
We’re also leading up to tackle an important question: where do particles get their mass? That’s what Chapter 6 is all about!
PART 1 - CHAPTER 6
HOW DO FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES ACQUIRE MASS?
We've reached an exciting point in our journey - how do fundamental particles actually get mass? It turns out, this is all thanks to something called the Higgs field.
The Higgs field affects real particles that have no internal structure, like the quarks, leptons, W and Z bosons. Sounds strange? It gets even weirder!
In this chapter, we'll explore how the Higgs field causes something called spontaneous symmetry breaking (don’t worry, we’ll break it down!). If you thought the last chapter on force mediators and their ‘virtual’ exchange particles was mind-blowing, buckle up - things are about to get even more interesting!
We’ll also introduce something called the Lagrangian, a key concept in physics that helps us understand how quantum fields work.
And just wait until you hear about the fictitious Goldstone bosons - they play a huge role in shaping the W+, W-, and Z0 bosons as we know them today!
PART 2 - CHAPTER 7
HOW DID THE UNIVERSE BEGIN?
Have you ever wondered how everything around us - the stars, planets, and even time itself - came to be? Our current understanding is that the universe began in an incredible event we are going to call T=0 or Time Zero, the very start of everything!
Was there a big bang? This term 'Big Bang', is used all the time, but it wasn’t really an explosion. Instead, it was a rapid expansion of the universe itself from something incredibly tiny.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 8
WHAT'S NUCLEAR FUSION?
In this chapter we look in detail at the mechanisms that power the suns of the universe from birth to final demise: nuclear fusion.
Our sun's core is about 20% of the sun's radius containing about 35% of the sun's total mass in less than 1% of its volume and generates something like 99% of the sun's fusion power (source: Wikipedia).
The fusion of hydrogen into helium is also referred to as hydrogen burning, a nuclear fusion process, which should not be confused with chemical burning.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 9
WHAT'S RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR FISSION?
In this chapter, we look at three related topics; radioactivity, the neutrino (a product of radioactivity) and nuclear fission, which has allowed us to create nuclear power plants and weapons of mass destruction.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 10
IT'S ALL RELATIVE!
In this chapter we examine the fundamental features of Einstein's theory of special relativity that started a revolution in how physicists look at the world.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 11
HOW DO YOU MODEL IN SPACE-TIME?
In the last chapter we had; the super-fast train in a thunder storm and muons produced in the upper atmosphere reaching ground zero, when they shouldn't.
In this chapter we are going to model the two scenarios using space-time to show how we can map the perception of the train spotter and thrill seeker onto a single frame of reference and do the same for the muon and the stationary scientist at the base of the mountain.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 12
WHAT'S GENERAL RELATIVITY?
In this chapter we'll see how Einstein carried on with thought experiments to understand how gravity and acceleration could be included in his extended version of space-time.
His big break-through was realising that acceleration and gravity are equivalent that gave us a new way of looking at gravity compared to Newton's theory.
General relativity made astounding predictions, possibly the most influential being that gravity bends light and we see Einstein suddenly being catapulted into the lime-light when his prediction is verified.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 13
WHAT'S SPOOKY ACTION AT A DISTANCE?
'Spooky action at a distance' is how Einstein described quantum entanglement, an inherent feature of quantum systems and by far, one of quantum physics’ most bizarre aspects with a substantial mystery surrounding it.
Possibly, the most interesting aspect of the quantum world is that all possibilities do happen – bring on the multiverse!
To round off the chapter, there’s a taster of things that might come, through the possibility that Einstein's own theory of General Relativity may hold the solution to Einstein's issue with entanglement.
PART 2 - CHAPTER 14
HOW WILL THE UNIVERSE END?
We are going to look at a branch of physics called thermodynamics that probably holds the answer to the universe's demise.
The laws of thermodynamics were postulated by the Victorians who developed engines that used heat to perform work and drive wheels of all types to forge the industrial revolution.
The concept of 'Entropy', was first used by the Victorian engineers and is now a mainstream measurement of the state of a system.
In this chapter, we'll look at heat engines, absolute zero temperature, superconductivity and then there's lots of fascinating stuff about the entropy of black holes to get your head round.
Finally, we look at how the universe is likely to end and the consequences of thermodynamics hopefully appear to be the front winner, as the alternative, theoretical endings are gruesome in the extreme!
PART 3 - CHAPTER 15
WHY IS SYMMETRY IMPORTANT IN PHYSICS?
Parts 1 and 2 provide much of the background physics for a look at the role that symmetry has played in physics.
In physics, the symmetry of a system is either;
1. An observed physical symmetry.
OR
2. A mathematical feature of the system that is preserved after some form of transformation occurs in the maths.
PART 3 - CHAPTER 16
WHAT IS MAGNETISM?
This chapter begins with the mysterious property that certain materials have - magnetism. Where you have magnetism, you have a magnetic field and these vary from tiny little magnetic fields, created by magnetic dipoles (introduced in part 1), produced by electrons, to gigantic magnetic fields created by the spinning charges of accretion disks, rotating around black holes and neutron stars, as we saw in chapter 7 of part 2. So, what's going on?
PART 3 - CHAPTER 17
WHAT ARE SEMICONDUCTORS?
In this chapter, we're going to look at the physics of the devices that have created a world of technology, on which we are now totally dependent.
PART 3 - CHAPTER 18
WHAT ARE THE RINGS OF CERN?
CERN, is an acronym for the French title, 'Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire,' which translates into English as 'European Centre for Nuclear Research.'
Most people know CERN as the home of the LHC, which was built and is operated by a worldwide collaboration of scientists, engineers and technicians at CERN's main site in Switzerland.
CERN was founded in 1952 in order to establish a world-class research facility in Europe.
The founding principle of CERN was to provide facilities to investigate the nucleus of atoms and have no connection to any military body, but only perform research for peaceful purposes and make all knowledge available in the public domain.
Truly aspirational sentiments.
Let's start by going back to the early days of CERN's contributions to particle physics.
PART 3 - CHAPTER 19
SOME OF THE EARLY PIONEERS OF PHYSICS – PART 1 (1901 to 1960)
The Nobel prize in physics is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to physicists who have made an important discovery, or who have created an important invention, or who have made substantial contributions in the field of physics.
Of course, physics isn't the only Nobel prize that Alfred Nobel instigated.
Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and heralded in the age of high explosives, which have been used for good as well as bad by humans. Nobel was born in Sweden in 1833. In his career he was both a chemist and an engineer.
By the end of his career, he had filed more than three hundred patents worldwide, for a variety of inventions. He died in Italy in 1896 and left the majority of his accumulated fortune in trust to establish what has become the most prestigious of international awards.
The Nobel prize is administered by the Nobel Foundation in Sweden in five categories; physics, chemistry, literature, peace and medicine (including physiology).
Each year, nominations are sent to the various prize-winning institutions, who determine the final selections. The prize in physics and chemistry is conferred by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
This chapter takes a look at the winners of the Nobel prize in physics since its inception up to 1960. Chapter 20 continues the list of Nobel prize winners in physics up to 2024.
PART 3 - CHAPTER 20
MORE RECENT PIONEERS OF PHYSICS - PART 2 (1961 - 2024)
This chapter continues the Journey into Modern Physics through the awarding of the Nobel prize in physics from 1961 onwards. Chapter 19 ended with the birth of the bubble chamber and the first high energy accelerators used to explore the atom and its nucleus. The particle zoo had been unleashed. There is so much more to come!
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